Application of Biology

📚

BIOTECHNOLOGY

▢ Introduction:

Table 1: Biotechnology Basics

Point	Description
Biotechnology	Application of living cells/components for human benefit
Definition	Utilization of biological knowledge for useful material production
Term coined by	Karl Ereky
Old biotechnology	Based on natural capabilities of microorganisms
Modern biotechnology	Microbiology + biochemistry + tissue culture + genetic engineering + molecular biology + immunology
NSF definition	Controlled use of biological agents/cellular components for beneficial use
Traditional example	Fermentation

▢ Eugenics, Euphenics and Euthenics:

Table 1: Human Improvement Terms

Term	Meaning
Eugenics	Improvement of human race by principles of genetics
Euphenics	Improvement by symptomatic treatment of genetic diseases / genetic engineering
Euthenics	Improvement by better living conditions / nutrition / environment
Father of eugenics	Galton

▢ Branches of Biotechnology:

❖ Plant Tissue Culture:

◉ Definition: Growing cells, tissues or organs in artificial nutrient medium under aseptic conditions

◉ Basis: Cellular totipotency

◉ Totipotency Given By: Haberlandt

◉ First Practical Application: F. C. Steward and co-workers

◉ Explant: Plant part removed for culture

◉ Culture Media:

•
Tollen's medium
•
Skoog's medium
•
White's medium

◉ Benefits:

•
Rapid clonal propagation
•
Pathogen-free plants
•
Wide hybridization
•
Increased productivity
•
Variation improvement

◉ Types:

Table 1: Types of Tissue Culture

Type	Explant used
Shoot culture	Sterile shoot tips / axillary buds
Protoplast culture	Isolated protoplast
Embryo culture	Embryos from immature seeds
Anther / microspore culture	Anthers / microspores
Meristem culture	Apical meristem

◉ Special Points:

•
Hanning first cultured mature embryos of Raphanus caudatus and Raphanus sativus
•
Root tip culture → study of mitosis
•
Callus → unorganized undifferentiated mass of cells
•
Meristem culture → virus-free plants
•
Anther/microspore culture → androgenesis
•
Androgenesis → haploid production
•
Haploids treated with colchicine → homozygous diploids

❖ Protoplast Culture:

Table 1: Protoplast Culture

Feature	Point
Protoplast	Cell without cell wall
Importance	Complete plant can be obtained from single protoplast
Use 1	Obtaining germ-free plants
Use 2	Introduction of foreign genes
Use 3	Fusion of incompatible plants
Status	Latest and important type of tissue culture

❖ Gene Transfer:

Table 1: Gene Transfer Methods

Method	Meaning
Direct gene transfer	Direct transfer into plants by conventional breeding / protoplast fusion
Agrobacterium-mediated transfer	Gene transfer through Agrobacterium tumefaciens

❖ Hybridoma Technology:

◉ Definition: Fusion of myeloma cell with antibody-producing B lymphocyte

◉ Product: Monoclonal antibodies

◉ Importance: Hybridoma multiplies rapidly and produces large amount of antibody

◉ Uses:

•
Pregnancy testing by detecting hCG
•
Disease diagnosis e.g. STD, gonorrhea, cancer
•
Treatment of disease
•
Preventing transplant rejection
•
Tissue typing
•
Immunological typing of bacteria

◉ Magic Bullet: Monoclonal antibodies strike specific molecules and spare other body cells

▢ Genetic Engineering:

❖ Introduction:

Table 1: Genetic Engineering Basics

Term	Meaning
Genetic engineering	Transfer of genes to produce desired permanent changes
Other name	Recombinant DNA technology
Target gene	Gene of interest / foreign DNA
Vector	DNA carrier / cloning vehicle
Recombinant DNA	Hybrid DNA / chimeric DNA
Transgenic animals	Animals with foreign genes inserted into germ line
First transgenic crop	Tobacco
Transgenic crops	Tobacco, tomato

❖ DNA Cloning Steps:

DNA containing target gene is cut into pieces
Target gene is joined in vitro with vector
Recombinant DNA is produced
Recombinant DNA introduced into living cell
DNA replicates into multiple copies

❖ Vectors:

Table 1: Vectors

Vector	Feature
Plasmid	Extrachromosomal circular DNA of bacteria
Cosmid	Plasmid with cos site; useful for cloning large DNA fragments
Bacteriophage	Virus infecting bacteria; used as vector

❖ Tools:

Table 1: Genetic Engineering Tools

Tool	Function
Exonuclease	Digests bases from 5′ or 3′ ends of DNA
Endonuclease	Cuts DNA internally except ends
Restriction endonuclease	Molecular scissors / genetic scalpel; cuts double-stranded DNA into fragments
EcoRI	Common restriction enzyme
DNA ligase	Joins 3′-OH end of one DNA strand to 5′-phosphate end of another

❖ Applications:

Table 1: Applications of Genetic Engineering

Field	Applications
Human health	Vaccines, hormones, interferons, monoclonal antibodies, antibiotics, disease diagnosis, gene therapy
Agriculture	Resistant crops, nitrogen-fixing crops, plant/animal breeding
Examples	Bt gene in rice/maize for pest resistance; nif gene for nitrogen fixation

▢ Applications of Biotechnology:

Table 1: Major Applications

Field	Applications
Agriculture	Micropropagation, disease-free plants, resistant plants, protoplast fusion, pollen culture
Medicine	Antibody production, vaccines, ELISA, PCR, hormones, enzymes, antibiotics, vitamins, gene transfer
Sewage treatment	Removal of organic matter by bacteria, fungi and algae
Biogas	Fermentation of cow dung/farm waste by methanogenic bacteria under anaerobic condition
Organic acids	Production of lactic, citric and acetic acids

▢ Fermentation:

❖ Definition: Incomplete oxidation of organic compounds into alcohol, CO₂ and metabolic energy by anaerobic organisms

❖ First Stable Product: Pyruvic acid

❖ Enzyme: Zymase

❖ Nature:

•
Extracellular
•
Exothermic

❖ Microbial Products:

Table 1: Fermentation Products

Organism	Product
Saccharomyces cerevisiae	Ethanol + CO₂
Aspergillus niger	Citric acid
Acetobacter	Acetic acid
Lactobacillus	Lactic acid
Candida utilis	Protein

❖ Industrial Terms:

Table 1: Industrial Fermentation Terms

Term	Meaning
Fermenter	Tank/vessel where fermentation is carried out
Batch fermentation	Closed system; organism and medium kept until maximum product formed
Continuous fermentation	Open system; medium partly removed and fresh medium added regularly
Downstream processing	Recovery and purification of desired product after fermentation
Scale-up	Conversion from laboratory scale to production scale

❖ Note: Yeast can respire aerobically and anaerobically

▢ Biotechnology Products:

❖ Cheese and Yoghurt:

Table 1: Milk Products

Product	Point
Cheese	Prepared by coagulation of casein and milk proteins by rennin
Rennin	Enzyme from calf gastric mucosa
Renin	Kidney hormone
Cheese microbes	Streptococcus and Lactobacillus
Yoghurt	Fermented milk product with distinct taste and thick texture
Yoghurt microbes	Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Streptococcus lactis, S. thermophilus
Yoghurt flavour	Lactic acid + acetaldehyde

❖ Dextran:

Table 1: Dextran

Feature	Point
Nature	Complex polysaccharide
Production	From starch hydrolysis or sucrose polymerization
Organism	Leuconostoc mesenteroides
Use	Plasma expander in blood transfusion

❖ Vitamins:

Table 1: Microbial Vitamins

Vitamin	Point
Vitamin C	First vitamin produced by fermentation using Acetobacter
Vitamin B₁₂	Contains cobalt; produced by Pseudomonas denitrificans
B₁₂ deficiency	Pernicious anaemia
Vitamin B₂ / Riboflavin	Synthesized by bacteria, yeasts and fungi e.g. Ashbya gossypii

❖ Organic Acids:

Table 1: Organic Acids

Acid	Production
Acetic acid	Ethyl alcohol → acetic acid by Acetobacter
Lactic acid	Produced by Lactobacillus delbrueckii
Citric acid	Fermentation of sucrose by Aspergillus niger
Gluconic acid	Fermentation of glucose by Penicillium purpurogenum, P. chrysogenum

❖ Insulin:

Table 1: Insulin

Fact	Point
Human insulin	Humulin
First artificial synthesis	Tsan
Insulin discovered by	Sir Edward Sharpey-Schafer
Insulin isolated by	Banting and Best from dog pancreas
Source	β-cells of islets of Langerhans
Function	Regulates sugar metabolism
Deficiency	Diabetes mellitus
Structure	Protein with α-chain 21 aa and β-chain 30 aa linked by 2 disulphide bridges
Modern production	Recombinant Escherichia coli

▢ Biofertilizers:

❖ Definition: Fertilizers of biological origin that enrich soil nutrients

❖ Bacteria as Biofertilizers:

Table 1: Bacterial Biofertilizers

Type	Organism	Point
Symbiotic nitrogen fixer	Rhizobium leguminosarum	Root nodules of legumes; fixes atmospheric nitrogen
Free-living aerobic	Azotobacter	Aerobic nitrogen fixer
Free-living anaerobic	Clostridium	Anaerobic nitrogen fixer
Photosynthetic bacteria	Rhodospirillum, Chromatium	Free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria

❖ Cyanobacteria as Biofertilizers:

Table 1: Blue-green Algae / Cyanobacteria

Type	Example	Point
Free-living	Anabaena, Nostoc, Aulosira, Tolypothrix, Plectonema	Nitrogen fixation mostly via heterocysts
Rice field active BGA	Nostoc	Most active nitrogen-fixing BGA in rice field
Symbiotic	Anabaena azollae	In leaves of Azolla
Symbiotic	Anabaena cycadacae	In Cycas root
Symbiotic	Nostoc punctiforme	In Anthoceros thallus
Main rice biofertilizer	Azolla-Anabaena	Used in South-East Asian rice fields

❖ Fungi as Biofertilizers:

◉ Mycorrhiza: Symbiotic association of fungi with roots of higher plants

Table 1: Mycorrhiza Types

Type	Feature	Examples
Ectomycorrhiza / ectotrophic	Fungal mantle outside root; hyphae partly enter cortex; stores NPK and calcium	Pine, oak, peach, eucalyptus
Endomycorrhiza / endotrophic	Fungus lives inside cortex cells; forms vesicles and arbuscules; VAM	Grasses, orchids, cereals; Aspergillus

◉ Mnemonic: POPE → Pine, Oak, Peach, Eucalyptus

❖ Biological Manures:

Table 1: Organic Manures

Type	Composition / Point
Farmyard manure	Cattle dung + remnants of straw/plant stock
Composted manure	Rotten vegetables + animal faeces
Green manure	Fast-growing crops cultivated and ploughed into soil

◉ Green Manure:

•
Provides organic matter and nitrogen
•
Crotalaria juncea
•
Trifolium alexandrinum
•
Lens culinaris

▢ Antibiotics:

❖ Introduction:

Table 1: Antibiotic Basics

Fact	Point
Term antibiotic	Selman A. Waksman
Streptomycin discovered by	Waksman
First antibiotic discovered	Penicillin
Penicillin discovered by	Alexander Fleming
Penicillin source discovered	Penicillium notatum
Commercial penicillin source	Penicillium chrysogenum
Antibiotics ineffective against viruses	Viruses lack their own metabolism
Main sources	Actinomycetes, bacteria, fungi
Gram sensitivity	Gram-positive bacteria usually more sensitive than Gram-negative

❖ Antibiotics and Sources:

Table 1: Important Antibiotics

Antibiotic	Source
Penicillin	Penicillium notatum, Penicillium chrysogenum
Streptomycin	Streptomyces griseus
Chloramphenicol / Chloromycetin	Streptomyces venezuelae
Rifampicin	Streptomyces mediterranei
Terramycin / Tetracycline	Streptomyces rimosus
Erythromycin	Streptomyces erythreus
Kanamycin	Streptomyces kanamyceticus
Neomycin B	Streptomyces fradiae
Gentamycin	Micromonospora
Cephalosporin	Cephalosporium acremonium

❖ Action:

Table 1: Antibiotic Action

Action	Meaning
Bacteriostatic	Inhibits growth of microorganisms
Bactericidal	Kills pathogenic microorganisms
Cell wall lysis	Damages cell wall
Cell wall synthesis inhibition	Blocks wall formation
Cell membrane damage	Damages microbial membrane
Protein synthesis inhibition	Blocks ribosomal protein synthesis
Nucleic acid inhibition	Blocks DNA/RNA metabolism
Reproduction restriction	Restricts microbial multiplication

◉ Autobiosis: Property of antibiotic to kill pathogenic microorganisms

❖ Spectrum:

Table 1: Broad vs Narrow Spectrum Antibiotics

Broad spectrum	Narrow spectrum
Chloramphenicol	Penicillin
Chlortetracycline	Streptomycin
Oxytetracycline / Terramycin	Dihydrostreptomycin
Tetracycline	Erythromycin
Kanamycin	Vancomycin
Ampicillin	—
Rifampicin	—
Gentamycin	—

◉ Note: Narrow-spectrum antibiotics are safer antibiotics

❖ Good Antibiotic Properties:

•
Destroys all strains of target microbe
•
Quick action
•
Broad effect when needed
•
Should not kill useful GIT microorganisms

▢ Vaccines:

❖ Introduction:

Table 1: Vaccine Basics

Fact	Point
Vaccine	Suspension of killed/modified pathogen or antigen producing immunity
Vaccination introduced by	Edward Jenner in 1796
Scientific basis established by	Louis Pasteur
Cholera vaccine	Louis Pasteur
Immunity	Ability of body to resist disease
Antigen	Foreign material eliciting antibody formation
Antibody	Immunoglobulin synthesized against antigen

❖ Types of Immunity:

Table 1: Immunity Types

Type	Meaning	Example
Natural immunity	Present since birth	IgG from mother via placenta
Artificial immunity	Acquired after birth/lifetime	Active or passive
Active immunity	Body produces antibodies after antigen exposure	Vaccine / infection
Passive immunity	Readymade antibodies introduced	Anti-snake venom

❖ Types of Vaccines:

Table 1: Vaccine Types

Type	Preparation	Examples
Killed / inactivated	Pathogen killed by heat, UV, alcohol or formalin	Typhoid, cholera, pertussis, influenza, rabies, viral encephalitis, hepatitis B, Salk polio
Toxoid	Toxic property destroyed but antigenicity retained	Tetanus, diphtheria
Attenuated live	Pathogen weakened and non-virulent	Yellow fever, OPV/Sabin, BCG, MMR
Antibody vaccine / serum	Serum with antibodies after exposure	Anti-tetanus serum, anti-rabies serum
Structural vaccine	Extracted cellular fraction	Hepatitis B vaccine

◉ Attenuated Note: Often gives long-lasting immunity

❖ Generation-based Classification:

Table 1: Vaccine Generations

Generation	Meaning	Examples
First generation	Produced from microbes by conventional technique	Traditional vaccines
Second generation	Produced by recombinant DNA technology	Hepatitis B, herpes virus, pneumonia vaccine
Third generation	Synthetic vaccine by genetic engineering	FMD vaccine, feline leukemia vaccine

❖ Notes:

•
Anti-AIDS vaccine difficult due to extreme variability/mutation of HIV
•
Cold chain maintains vaccine temperature from production to vaccination site
•
Sunlight, heat and antiseptics destroy vaccines

▢ Amniocentesis:

❖ Definition: Technique using amniotic fluid during gestation for prenatal disorder detection

❖ Procedure: Small amount of amniotic fluid is extracted using a slender needle through maternal abdomen

❖ Uses:

•
Detection of hereditary diseases
•
Detection of chromosomal abnormalities
•
Foetal cell study

❖ Sex Chromatin:

Table 1: Barr Body

Finding	Interpretation
Barr body present	Female
Barr body absent	Male

❖ Note: Prenatal testing should be used only for appropriate medical and ethical indications

▢ Test Tube Baby / IVF:

❖ Definition: In vitro fertilization; fertilization outside body in laboratory dish

❖ Steps:

Mature egg removed from ovary
Egg kept in laboratory culture dish
Sperm mixed with egg
Fertilized egg undergoes cleavage
Embryo transferred into uterus for implantation

❖ Important Facts:

Table 1: IVF Facts

Fact	Answer
IVF pioneer in humans	Prof. Robert Winston
First test tube baby	Louise Joy Brown
Birth date	July 25, 1978
Place	Oldham General Hospital, Lancashire, England
Devised by	Patrick Steptoe and Robert Edwards
First test tube baby of Nepal	Om Maya Tamang
Nepal place/date	OM Hospital and Research Centre, 20th Falgun 2061
Surrogate mother	Woman who lends uterus for implantation when original mother is unfit

▢ Transplantation:

❖ Definition: Replacement of damaged tissue/organ by similar tissue/organ from donor

❖ Tissue Transplantation:

Table 1: Types of Tissue Transplantation

Type	Meaning	Example / Point
Autograft	Own tissue grafted to another body part	Most successful; no rejection
Isograft	Donor and recipient genetically identical	Twin
Allograft / Homograft	Same species, different genetic background	Blood transfusion, kidney, cornea
Xenograft / Heterograft	Different species	Pig to human; burn dressing

❖ Rejection:

◉ Cause: Recipient immune system recognizes donor proteins as foreign

◉ Mediated By: Cellular immunity / T-lymphocytes

◉ Prevention:

•
Immunosuppressive therapy
•
Tissue matching
•
Monoclonal antibodies against T-cells
•
X-ray irradiation of lymph nodes and bone marrow

❖ Organ Transplantation:

Table 1: Organ Transplant Points

Fact	Point
Organs transplanted	Kidney, heart, lungs etc.
First heart transplant	Christian Barnard, 1967
Cornea transplant	Keratoplasty
Cornea removal after death	Within 6–12 hours
Corneal graft success	Higher due to absence of blood supply in healthy cornea

❖ Immunosuppressive Drugs:

Table 1: Immunosuppressive Drug

Drug	Source / Action
Cyclosporine	Derived from fungus; prevents kidney, heart and liver transplant rejection
Action	Inhibits helper T-cell activity

▢ Plant Breeding:

❖ Definition: Science of improving hereditary characters of crops and producing improved varieties

❖ Objectives:

•
Increased yield
•
Improved quality
•
Better agronomic characters
•
Adaptability to new regions
•
Disease and insect resistance
•
Changed maturity duration
•
Removal of toxic substances
•
Resistance to lodging

❖ Methods:

◉ Introduction and Acclimatization:

Table 1: Introduction

Term	Meaning
Plant introduction	Introduction of new variety into a locality
Acclimatization	Adaptation of introduced variety to new locality
Status	Quickest, most rapid and easiest breeding method
Introduced crops in Nepal	Wheat, rice, potato, tobacco, papaya, grapes, guava

◈ Invasive Alien Examples:

•
Eupatorium adenophorum
•
Argemone mexicana
•
Lantana camara
•
Parthenium hysterophorum
•
Eichhornia

◉ Selection:

◈ Definition: Choice of superior individuals from mixed population

◈ Types:

Table 1: Selection Types

Type	Feature
Natural selection	Survival of fittest
Artificial selection	Selection done by humans
Mass selection	Plants selected by phenotype; commonest and oldest; cross-pollinated crops
Pure line selection	Isolation of homozygous individual from mixed population; genotype-based
Clonal selection	Varieties developed from clones of vegetatively propagated crops

◈ Clonal Selection Examples:

•
Mango
•
Orange
•
Potato
•
Banana
•
Sugarcane
•
Turnip
•
Citrus
•
Bamboo
•
Ginger

◉ Hybridization:

◈ Definition: Crossing genetically different plants/animals to obtain new varieties

◈ Importance: Creates variability and produces heterosis / hybrid vigour

◈ Note: Heterosis lost after few generations

◈ Types:

Table 1: Hybridization Types

Type	Cross
Intraspecific / intervarietal	Between varieties of same species
Interspecific / intrageneric	Between species of same genus
Intergeneric	Between genera of same family
Somatic hybridization	Protoplast fusion
Parasexual hybridization	Hybrid obtained by non-sexual method

◈ Intergeneric Examples:

Table 1: Intergeneric Hybrids

Cross	Hybrid
Raphanus × Brassica	Raphanobrassica
Triticum × Secale	Triticale
Potato × Tomato	Pomato
Brinjal × Tomato	Bromato
Sugarcane × Sorghum	Sorghumcane

◈ Steps:

Selection of parents
Cultivation and selfing for homozygous parents
Emasculation
Bagging
Tagging and labelling
Crossing
Harvesting and raising F₁ seeds
Trials, multiplication and distribution
Production of F₂

◈ Emasculation: Removal of stamens/anther or killing pollen grains before maturity without affecting female parts

◈ Bagging: Use of emasculation bags to prevent foreign pollen contamination

◈ F2 Note: F₂ shows independent assortment

◉ Mutation Breeding:

◈ Important Mutation: Point / gene mutation

◈ Mutagens:

Table 1: Mutagens

Type	Examples
Chemical	Hydrazines, MMS, nitrous acid, EMS
Physical	X-rays, β-rays, UV rays

◉ Polyploidy Breeding:

◈ Definition: Formation of plants with more than two chromosome sets

◈ Natural Occurrence: Vegetatively reproducing seedless plants e.g. banana, ginger, grapes

◈ Induction: Colchicine and granosan treatment

◈ Features:

•
Polyploids often larger and harder than parents
•
Odd-numbered genomes e.g. 3n, 5n, 7n are sterile
•
Polyploids show Gigas effect

◉ Micropropagation:

◈ Definition: In vitro clonal propagation of plants in artificial medium under aseptic condition

◈ Stages:

Shoot multiplication
Rooting of in vitro shoots
Transplantation to soil

◈ Embryoids: Somatic non-zygotic embryos used in multiplication

▢ Animal Breeding:

Table 1: Animal Breeding Methods

Method	Meaning	Examples / Points
In-breeding	Mating closely related individuals	Merino sheep, modern horse; increases homozygosity; prolonged use reduces fertility/productivity
Out-breeding / hybridization	Mating unrelated individuals	Creates new breeds
Out-crossing	Between same breed	—
Cross-breeding	Between different breeds	—
Interspecific breeding	Between different species	Mule, hinny, liger, tigon
Artificial insemination	Introduction of semen from superior male into female reproductive tract	Semen stored in liquid nitrogen at −196°C

❖ Interspecific Hybrids:

Table 1: Animal Hybrids

Hybrid	Parents
Mule	Male donkey × female horse
Hinny	Female donkey × male horse
Liger	Male lion × female tiger
Tigon	Female lion × male tiger

❖ Artificial Insemination:

◉ First Success: Spallanzani, 1780

◉ Importance: Low-cost production of improved animals from limited resources

▢ Read and Digest:

•
Raphanobrassica = first artificial allotetraploid
•
Polyploids show Gigas effect
•
Triticum aestivum = hexaploid
•
First transgenic crop = tobacco
•
Pashmina = under-fur of Kashmiri goat
•
Narrow-spectrum antibiotics are safer
•
Anaerobic respiration is intracellular and intermolecular
•
Yeast respires aerobically and anaerobically
•
Digitoxin = heart stimulator
•
Datura = source of stramonium
•
Groundnut used to extract margarine
•
Neem used for azadirachtin
•
Vinblastine obtained from Catharanthus
•
Polly and Molly = transgenic sheep
•
Dolly = first cloned animal

▢ High-Yield Recall:

Table 1: Biotechnology One-Liners

Fact	Answer
Term biotechnology	Karl Ereky
Tissue culture basis	Totipotency
Totipotency given by	Haberlandt
First tissue culture practical application	F. C. Steward
Explant	Plant part used for culture
Callus	Undifferentiated cell mass
Virus-free plants	Meristem culture
Haploid production	Anther/microspore culture
Anther culture process	Androgenesis
Latest tissue culture	Protoplast culture
Agrobacterium gene transfer	Agrobacterium tumefaciens
Hybridoma	Myeloma + B lymphocyte
Monoclonal antibodies	Hybridoma technology
Genetic engineering	Recombinant DNA technology
Molecular scissors	Restriction endonucleases
DNA joining enzyme	DNA ligase
Recombinant DNA	Chimeric DNA
First transgenic crop	Tobacco
Fermentation enzyme	Zymase
First stable product of fermentation	Pyruvic acid
Citric acid	Aspergillus niger
Acetic acid	Acetobacter
Lactic acid	Lactobacillus
Dextran organism	Leuconostoc mesenteroides
Dextran use	Plasma expander
Vitamin B₁₂ contains	Cobalt
Vitamin B₁₂ deficiency	Pernicious anaemia
Human insulin	Humulin
Insulin isolated by	Banting and Best
Insulin source	β-cells of islets of Langerhans
Symbiotic nitrogen fixer	Rhizobium leguminosarum
Aerobic free-living nitrogen fixer	Azotobacter
Anaerobic nitrogen fixer	Clostridium
Rice field active BGA	Nostoc
Azolla symbiont	Anabaena azollae
Cycas root symbiont	Anabaena cycadacae
Mycorrhiza	Fungus + root
Ectomycorrhiza mnemonic	POPE
VAM	Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza
Term antibiotic	Waksman
First antibiotic	Penicillin
Penicillin discovered by	Alexander Fleming
Penicillin source	Penicillium notatum
Commercial penicillin	Penicillium chrysogenum
Streptomycin source	Streptomyces griseus
Chloramphenicol source	Streptomyces venezuelae
Antibiotics ineffective against	Viruses
Vaccination introduced by	Edward Jenner
Scientific basis of vaccination	Louis Pasteur
Killed vaccine example	Salk polio
Live attenuated vaccine example	Sabin polio, BCG, MMR
Toxoid vaccine	Tetanus, diphtheria
Second-generation vaccine	Recombinant DNA vaccine
Cold chain	Temperature-maintained vaccine transport/storage
Amniocentesis	Prenatal disorder detection
First test tube baby	Louise Joy Brown
First test tube baby Nepal	Om Maya Tamang
Most successful graft	Autograft
Transplant rejection mediated by	T lymphocytes
Cyclosporine action	Inhibits helper T cells
Plant introduction	Quickest breeding method
Oldest crop improvement method	Selection
Best plant improvement method	Hybridization
Hybrid vigour	Heterosis
Somatic hybridization	Protoplast fusion
Emasculation	Removal of anther/stamens before maturity
Odd polyploids	Sterile
Semen storage	Liquid nitrogen at −196°C
First artificial insemination	Spallanzani
Dolly	First cloned animal

Table 1: Biotechnology Basics

Table 1: Human Improvement Terms

Table 1: Types of Tissue Culture

Table 1: Protoplast Culture

Table 1: Gene Transfer Methods

Table 1: Genetic Engineering Basics

Table 1: Vectors

Table 1: Genetic Engineering Tools

Table 1: Applications of Genetic Engineering

Table 1: Major Applications

Table 1: Fermentation Products

Table 1: Industrial Fermentation Terms

Table 1: Milk Products

Table 1: Dextran

Table 1: Microbial Vitamins

Table 1: Organic Acids

Table 1: Insulin

Table 1: Bacterial Biofertilizers

Table 1: Blue-green Algae / Cyanobacteria

Table 1: Mycorrhiza Types

Table 1: Organic Manures

Table 1: Antibiotic Basics

Table 1: Important Antibiotics

Table 1: Antibiotic Action

Table 1: Broad vs Narrow Spectrum Antibiotics

Table 1: Vaccine Basics

Table 1: Immunity Types

Table 1: Vaccine Types

Table 1: Vaccine Generations

Table 1: Barr Body

Table 1: IVF Facts

Table 1: Types of Tissue Transplantation

Table 1: Organ Transplant Points

Table 1: Immunosuppressive Drug

Table 1: Introduction

Table 1: Selection Types

Table 1: Hybridization Types

Table 1: Intergeneric Hybrids

Table 1: Mutagens

Table 1: Animal Breeding Methods

Table 1: Animal Hybrids

Table 1: Biotechnology One-Liners

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