Reproduction | CEE Academy

Fig.Summary of Reproduction in Angiosperms

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TYPICAL FLOWER

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Definition

Reproductive shoot of angiosperm

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Homology with gymnosperms

Table 1: Gymnosperm vs Angiosperm Homology

Angiosperm structure	Gymnosperm equivalent
◉ Flower:	◉ Cone / Strobilus:
◉ Stamen:	◉ Microsporophyll:
◉ Anther / Pollen sac:	◉ Microsporangium:
◉ Pollen grain:	◉ Microspore:
◉ Germinating pollen / pollen tube:	◉ Male gametophyte:
◉ Carpel / Ovary:	◉ Megasporophyll:
◉ Ovule:	◉ Megasporangium:
◉ Embryo sac:	◉ Female gametophyte:
◉ Megaspore:	◉ Macrospore:
◉ Egg / Oosphere:	◉ Female gamete:
◉ Egg apparatus:	◉ Archegonium:

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MALE REPRODUCTIVE PART

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Part

▢ Androecium: Composed of stamens / microsporophylls

▢ Stamen:

Table 1: Parts of Stamen

Part	Nature / Function
Anther	Fertile part
Connective	Sterile part
Filament	Stalk

▢ Anther:

Table 1: Anther Structure

Feature	Point
Anther lobe	Present on either side of connective
Pollen sacs per lobe	2
Microsporangia per anther	4
Typical anther	Dithecous + tetrasporangiate
Dithecous anther	2 anther lobes + 4 microsporangia
Rare monosporangiate anther	Arceuthobium
Development in higher plants	Eusporangiate
Fern sporangium	Leptosporangiate e.g. Dryopteris

❖ Anther Wall:

Table 1: Anther Wall Layers

Layer	Position	Features / Function
Epidermis	Outermost	Single-layered; thick; protective
Endothecium	Below epidermis	Radially elongated cells; fibrous thickening; hygroscopic; helps anther dehiscence
Middle layers	Between endothecium and tapetum	2–3 layers; ephemeral; degenerate at maturity
Tapetum	Innermost	Nutritive; large nuclei; dense cytoplasm; maximum at pollen tetrad stage

◉ Stomium: Thin-walled region of anther where dehiscence occurs

◉ Exothecium: Fibrous thickening in epidermis of Arceuthobium; gymnosperm-like feature

❖ Tapetum:

◉ Nature:

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Innermost anther wall layer
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Nutritive to pollen grains + developing pollen mother cells
•
Cells large, multinucleated, polyploid
•
Polyploidy due to endomitosis / endopolyploidy
•
Secretes enzymes + hormonal substances e.g. IAA

◉ Types:

Table 1: Types of Tapetum

Type	Other name
Amoeboid tapetum	Invasive / periplasmodial
Secretory tapetum	Glandular / parietal Produces Sporopollenin

◉ Products:

Table 1: Tapetal Products

Product	Nature / Function
Callase enzyme	Dissolves callose around pollen tetrad
Ubisch bodies / sphaeroids	Lipid bodies coated with sporopollenin; increase exine thickness
Sporopollenin	• Hydrophobic • Not degraded by enzymes • Hardest/ Most resistant biological substance • Major cause of long-term pollen fossil preservation
Pollen kitt	Sticky; lipids + carotenoids; common in entomophilous pollen
Proteins	Help pollen compatibility recognition
IAA	Hormonal substance secreted by tapetum

❖ Special Points:

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Tapetum = polyploid
•
Pollen tetrad = haploid
•
Most other anther tissues = diploid
•
Middle layer absent in Lemna and Wolffia
•
In Cyperaceae, 1 MMC forms 1 microspore
•
Pollen tetrad may be tetrahedral or isobilateral
•
Tetrahedral tetrad common in dicots
•
Isobilateral tetrad common in monocots
•
Polyspory = more than 4 pollens from 1 MMC; example Cuscuta
•
In Asclepiadaceae and Orchidaceae, pollen grains remain united as pollinium
•
Pollinium example → Calotropis, orchids

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Microsporogenesis

▢ Definition: Development of microspores / pollen grains from microspore mother cell inside microsporangium / pollen sac

▢ Sequence:

Young anther → homogeneous meristematic cells + epidermis
Hypodermal archesporial cell differentiates
Archesporial cell divides periclinally
Outer primary parietal cell formed
Inner primary sporogenous cell formed
Primary parietal cell → anther wall layers
Primary sporogenous cell → microspore mother cells / MMC
MMC undergoes meiosis
Haploid pollen tetrad formed
Callose dissolves
Individual pollen grains released

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Microgametogenesis

▢ Definition: Formation of male gametophyte from functional pollen grain

▢ Study Terms:

Table 1: Pollen Study Terms

Term	Meaning
Palynology	Study of pollen morphology
Melittopalynology	Study of honey pollens
Iatropalynology	Study of pollen in criminal and medical aspects

▢ Pollen Grain:

Table 1: Pollen Grain

Feature	Point
Generation	First cell of gametophytic generation
Ploidy	Haploid
Shape	Globulose
Nucleus	Initially uninucleate
Appearance	Dust-like, yellowish, minute
Best definition	Partially developed male gametophyte
Fully developed male gametophyte	Germinating pollen grain with pollen tube

❖ Pollen Wall:

Table 1: Pollen Wall

Layer	Composition	Origin / Function
Exine	Sporopollenin + cutin	Thick, hard, resistant; derived from tapetum
Intine	Cellulose + pectin	Thin, elastic; forms pollen tube
Germ pore	Region with thin/absent exine	Pollen tube emerges

◉ Exine Layers:

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Ectexine → tectum, columellae, foot layer
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Endexine

◉ Intine Layers:

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Ectintine
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Endintine

◉ Germ Pore:

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Dicots → usually 3 germ pores
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Monocots → single germinal furrow

❖ Pollen Cells:

Table 1: Cells of Pollen Grain

Cell	Size	Nucleus	Function
Vegetative / Tube cell	Larger	Large; physiologically active	Forms pollen tube
Generative cell	Smaller	Small; genetically active	Forms 2 male gametes

▢ Pollination Stage:

Table 1: Pollen Stage at Pollination

Plant group	Stage
Most angiosperms	2-celled stage
Monocots e.g. sugarcane, maize	3-celled stage
Dicots e.g. Malvaceae, Cucurbitaceae	3-celled stage
Cycas	3-celled stage → 1 prothallial + 1 tube + 1 generative
Pinus	4-celled stage → 2 prothallial + 1 tube + 1 generative

❖ Angiosperm Male Gametophyte:

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No prothallial cell
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Mature male gametophyte = 3-celled + 3-nucleated
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Formed by 3 divisions → 1 meiosis + 2 mitosis
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2-celled mature pollen = formed by 1 meiosis + 1 mitosis

▢ Pollen Tube:

Table 1: Pollen Tube

Feature	Point
Origin	Intine
Composition	Pectin, callose, cellulose
Discovery	Amici
Term pollen	Nemec
Monosiphonous	Single pollen tube from 1 pollen grain
Polysiphonous	Many pollen tubes from 1 pollen grain; 6–14 in Cucurbitaceae, Malvaceae

❖ Growth Factor: Boron helps pollen grain / pollen tube growth

▢ Important Pollens:

Table 1: Special Pollen Points

Point	Example
Hay fever causing pollen	Ambrosia
Poisonous pollen	Serjania
Largest pollen	Cucurbits
Smallest pollen	Myosotis / forget-me-not
Androgenic haploid	Haploid produced from microspore / pollen grain

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FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE PART

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Parts

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Gynoecium

Composed of carpel / pistil / megasporophyll

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Carpel

Table 1: Carpel

Part	Feature
Stigma	Receives pollen; present only in angiosperms
Style	Connects stigma and ovary
Ovary	Contains ovules

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Ovule

▢ Definition: Integumented indehiscent megasporangium which becomes seed after fertilization

▢ Other Name: Seed bud

▢ Arrangement: Placentation = arrangement of ovules inside ovary

▢ Parts:

Table 1: Parts of Ovule

Part	Meaning / Point
Micropyle	Opening of ovule; formed by inner integument
Nucellus	Main parenchymatous body of ovule; first formed cell of ovule
Integument	Surrounds ovule except micropyle
Chalaza	Junction of integuments and nucellus; basal part; opposite micropyle; most active part
Funicle	Stalk attaching ovule to placenta
Hilum	Point of attachment of ovule body to funicle
Raphe	Bulged part formed by funicle on ovule body
Endostome	Space between nucellus and inner integument near micropyle

▢ Forms of Ovule:

❖ Based on Orientation:

Table 1: Types of Ovule by Orientation

Type	Feature	Examples
Orthotropous / Atropous / Erect	Straight; micropyle, funicle, chalaza in one line; primitive + simplest	Gymnosperms except Pinus, Cycas, Piperaceae, Polygonaceae
Anatropous / Inverted	Ovule inverted 180°; micropyle close to funicle; most common	Angiosperms, Pinus
Hemianatropous / Hemitropous	Ovule at right angle to funicle	Ranunculus
Campylotropous	Ovule body curved but embryo sac straight	Capsella, Capparis, Leguminosae, Cruciferae
Amphitropous	Curved ovule with horse-shoe shaped embryo sac	Papaveraceae, Alismaceae
Circinotropous	Ovule coiled by funicle; micropyle upward	Cactaceae e.g. Opuntia

◉ Special:

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Cycas → orthotropous + unitegmic
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Pinus → anatropous + unitegmic
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Mnemonic → P An = Pinus Anatropous

❖ Based on Integuments:

Table 1: Types of Ovule by Integument Number

Type	Meaning	Examples
Ategmic	No integument	Santalum, Loranthus
Unitegmic	Single integument	Gymnosperms, Cycas, Pinus, higher dicots, Compositae
Bitegmic	Two integuments	Common in angiosperms, monocots
Tritegmic	Three integuments	Asphodelus

◉ Integument Derivatives:

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Testa → outer integument
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Tegmen → inner integument
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Caruncle in Ricinus → outer integument
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Asphodelus covering / aril-like structure → integument-derived
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All ovular cells outside embryo sac are diploid → integument, nucellus, funicle, hilum

❖ Specific Ovular Structures:

Table 1: Ovule-associated Structures

Structure	Origin / Meaning	Example / Function
Endothelium	Specialized nutritive tissue from innermost integument	Integumentary tapetum; Asteraceae
Obturator	Ovular structure guiding pollen tube to micropyle	From funicle / placenta
Caruncle	Outgrowth from outer integument	Ricinus; absorbs water
Perisperm	Remnant of nucellus	Zingiber
Aril	Develops from funicle	Edible part of Litchi chinensis
Aril in litchi	Third integument-like covering	Edible part

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Placentation

Table 1: Types of Placentation

Type	Examples / Family
Marginal	Leguminaceae
Parietal	Cruciferae, Cucurbitaceae
Axile	Solanaceae, Malvaceae, Liliaceae
Basal	Compositae, Poaceae
Superficial	Nymphaea, Nelumbo
Free central	Dianthus, Salvia

▢ Mnemonics:

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Marginal → Ma Le → Leguminaceae
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Axile → So Ma Li A → Solanaceae, Malvaceae, Liliaceae

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Megasporogenesis

▢ Definition: Development of megaspores inside megasporangium / ovule

▢ Sequence:

Hypodermal nucellar cell becomes archesporial cell
Archesporial cell divides periclinally
Outer primary parietal cell formed
Inner primary sporogenous cell formed
Primary parietal cell divides anticlinally → wall of embryo sac
Primary sporogenous cell enlarges → megaspore mother cell / MMC
MMC undergoes meiosis
4 megaspores formed in linear tetrad
3 micropylar megaspores degenerate
1 chalazal megaspore remains functional

▢ Special Cases:

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Balanophora → micropylar megaspore functional
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Casuarina → any one of 4 megaspores functional

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Megagametogenesis

▢ Definition:

Formation of female gametophyte / embryo sac from functional megaspore
Functional megaspore → Embryo sac (CEE 2025)

▢ Sequence:

Functional megaspore undergoes 3 mitotic divisions
8 nuclei formed
4 nuclei at micropylar end + 4 nuclei at chalazal end
One nucleus from each pole migrates to centre
Two polar nuclei fuse during fertilization
Secondary nucleus / definitive nucleus formed
3 chalazal cells → antipodal cells
3 micropylar cells → egg apparatus
Mature embryo sac becomes 7-celled and 8-nucleated

▢ Embryo Sac Structure:

Table 1: Mature Angiospermic Embryo Sac

Region	Cells / Nuclei	Function
Micropylar end	Egg apparatus → 1 egg + 2 synergids	Fertilization + pollen tube guidance
Central region	2 polar nuclei / secondary nucleus	Forms endosperm after triple fusion
Chalazal end	3 antipodal cells	Degenerate later

▢ Synergids:

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Contain filiform apparatus
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Absorb nutrients
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Guide pollen tube by chemical secretion
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2 synergids direct pollen tube

▢ Polygonum Type:

Table 1: Polygonum Type Embryo Sac

Feature	Point
Type	Monosporic
Cells	7-celled
Nuclei	8-nucleated
Nature	Most simple, primitive, normal type
First discovered in	Polygonum divaricatum
Discovered by	Strasburger
Formation	1 meiosis + 3 mitosis

▢ Embryo Sac Types:

Table 1: Types of Embryo Sac

Type	Development	Examples
Monosporic	From 1 megaspore	Polygonum, Oenothera
Bisporic / Allium type	From 2 megaspore nuclei	Onion
Tetrasporic	From 4 megaspore nuclei	Adoxa

▢ Special Points:

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Female gametophyte = embryo sac / megagametophyte
•
All embryo sac cells haploid except secondary nucleus / polar nuclei
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Secondary nucleus = only diploid nucleus of embryo sac
•
Largest cell of embryo sac = central / secondary cell
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Constant feature of embryo sac = egg cell / oosphere
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Pollen tube finally discharges gametes into synergid
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Growth of pollen tube toward embryo sac = chemotropic
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Nuclei at centre = polar nuclei
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Meiosis for n pollen grains = n/4
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Meiosis for n functional megaspores = n

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POLLINATION

▢ Definition: Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma

▢ Types:

Table 1: Self vs Cross Pollination

Feature	Self-pollination / Autogamy	Cross-pollination / Allogamy
Meaning	Pollen transferred to stigma of same flower / same plant	Pollen transferred to stigma of different plant
Purity	Maintains purity of race	Produces variation
Pollen wastage	Less	More
Offspring	Less variable	Healthier / more adaptable
New varieties	Less chance	May be produced

▢ Cross Pollination Types:

Table 1: Types of Allogamy

Type	Meaning
Geitonogamy	Between flowers of same plant
Xenogamy	Between flowers of different plants of same species
Hybridization	Between flowers of different species

▢ Contrivances for Self Pollination:

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Bisexuality / Monocliny
•
Cleistogamy → closed flowers
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Homogamy → male and female parts mature at same time

▢ Cleistogamy Examples:

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Arachis hypogaea / groundnut
•
Pisum sativum / pea
•
Oxalis
•
Commelina benghalensis → both cleistogamy + chasmogamy
•
Cleistogamy is accompanied by geocarpy

▢ Contrivances for Cross Pollination:

Table 1: Outbreeding Devices

Device	Meaning / Example
Dicliny / Unisexuality	Monoecious or dioecious flowers
Monoecious	Male + female flowers on same plant e.g. maize, cucurbit, castor
Dioecious	Male + female flowers on different plants e.g. papaya, Cannabis sativa, Vallisneria
Chasmogamy	Open flowers
Dichogamy	Male and female parts mature at different times
Protandry	Male part matures first
Protogyny	Female part matures first
Heterostyly	Stamens, style and stigma at different heights
Herkogamy	Natural barrier between anther and stigma
Self sterility / self incompatibility	Pollen fails to germinate on stigma of same flower
Pollen pre-potency	Pollen from another flower germinates faster than own pollen

❖ Herkogamy Example:

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Best herkogamy → Calotropis
•
Barrier → gynostegium disc
•
Pollen grains occur in sacs called pollinia
•
Union of stigma with pollinia = gynostegium

▢ Agents of Pollination:

Table 1: Pollination Agents

Agent	Meaning	Examples	Adaptations
Anemophily	By wind	Gymnosperms, Cycas, Pinus, grasses, rice, wheat, maize	Small inconspicuous flowers; abundant pollen; small, light, smooth, dry, unwettable pollen; versatile anther; large hairy/feathery stigma
Hydrophily	By water	Vallisneria, Ceratophyllum, Zostera, Najas	Large sticky stigma
Entomophily	By insects	Bees, ants	Large coloured scented flowers; nectar; sticky rough large pollen
Malacophily	By snails/slugs	Colocasia, Lemna	Animal pollination
Ophiophily / Serpentophily	By snakes	Arisaema, Rauvolfia serpentina	Snake-associated flowers
Ornithophily	By birds	Sunbirds, hummingbirds, Bombax, bottle brush / Callistemon, Simal	Bird-attracting flowers
Chiropterophily	By bats	Anthocephalus, Adansonia, Kigelia, sausage tree, Bauhinia	Bat-attracting flowers
Other agents	Animals	Squirrels in Gulmohar, elephants in Rafflesia	Specialized animal interaction

❖ Hydrophily Types:

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Epihydrophily → pollination on water surface e.g. Vallisneria
•
Hypohydrophily → pollination under water e.g. Ceratophyllum, Zostera, Najas

❖ Mechanisms:

Table 1: Special Pollination Mechanisms

Mechanism	Example
Turn-pipe / lever mechanism	Salvia
Translator mechanism	Calotropis
Door-trap mechanism	Ficus → gall wasp
Fly-trap mechanism	Aristolochia
Obligate symbiosis	Yucca + Pronuba moth
Censor mechanism	Poppy

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FERTILIZATION

▢ Definition: Fusion of male and female gametes to form zygote

▢ Siphonogamy: Male gametes carried to embryo sac by pollen tube

▢ Pollen Tube Entry into Ovule:

Table 1: Types of Pollen Tube Entry

Type	Entry route	Example
Porogamy	Through micropyle	Most common
Chalazogamy / Basigamy	Through chalaza	Casuarina
Mesogamy	Through integument	Cucurbita

▢ Important Points:

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Most active part of ovule = chalaza
•
Pollen tube invariably enters embryo sac at micropylar end
•
Pollen tube secretes pectinases and hydrolytic enzymes to create path in style
•
Movement of pollen tube = chemotactic
•
Pollen tube attracted by synergids through filiform apparatus
•
Pollen tube releases 2 male gametes + degenerating tube nucleus into synergid

▢ Double Fertilization:

Table 1: Double Fertilization

Feature	Point
Unique to	Angiosperms
Discovered by	Nawaschin
Discovered in	Fritillaria and Lilium
Nuclei involved	5 nuclei
Gametes involved	3 gametes
Syngamy	Male gamete + egg → zygote
Triple fusion	Male gamete + 2 polar nuclei / secondary nucleus → primary endosperm nucleus

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ENDOSPERM

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Definition

Storage tissue supplying nutrition to developing embryo

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Origin

Primary endosperm nucleus / PEN formed by triple fusion

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Features

•
Cells generally isodiametric
•
Thin-walled
•
Usually without pits
•
Angiosperm endosperm = post-fertilization tissue
•
Gymnosperm endosperm = pre-fertilization female gametophyte

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Gymnosperm vs angiosperm endosperm

Table 1: Endosperm Difference

Feature	Gymnosperm	Angiosperm
Time of formation	Before fertilization	After fertilization
Nature	Female gametophyte	Product of triple fusion
Ploidy	Haploid	Usually triploid

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Types by development

Table 1: Types of Endosperm

Type	Feature	Examples / Notes
Nuclear type	Nuclear divisions without immediate wall formation	Most common; Malvaceae, Papilionaceae
Cellular type	Wall formation after each nuclear division	Magnoliaceae
Helobial type	Intermediate between nuclear and cellular	Mostly monocots
Coconut endosperm	Both nuclear + cellular	Coconut milk = liquid endosperm

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Special points

•
Aleurone layer = proteinaceous peripheral layer of cereal endosperm
•
Aleurone layer present in maize/cereals
•
No endosperm in Orchidaceae, Podostemaceae, Trapaceae → TOP
•
Coconut milk contains auxins, cytokinins, GA and induces cytokinesis
•
Milky maize endosperm induces cytokinesis
•
Zeatin extracted from milky endosperm of maize
•
Mature endosperm lacks stimulatory property

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Seed types by endosperm

Table 1: Endospermic vs Non-endospermic Seeds

Type	Meaning	Examples
Non-endospermic / Exalbuminous	Endosperm absent at maturity	Gram, pea, bean, tamarind, orchids
Endospermic / Albuminous	Endosperm persists at maturity	Wheat, rice, barley, poppy, palms, maize

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Xenia & metaxenia

Table 1: Xenia vs Metaxenia

Term	Meaning	Example
Xenia	Direct effect of pollen on endosperm character	Maize
Metaxenia	Direct effect of pollen on structures outside embryo sac/endosperm e.g. seed coat or fruit wall	Date palm

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EMBRYOGENESIS

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Definition

Development of embryo from zygote by division and differentiation

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Zygote

Fertilized egg / 2n

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Embryo

Future tiny plant inside seed

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Tigellum

Main axis of embryo

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Hofmeister

Proposed embryo originates from existing cell of embryo sac, not from pollen tube

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Dicot vs monocot embryo

Table 1: Embryo Development

Feature	Dicot embryo	Monocot embryo
Cotyledons	Two	One
Common type	Onagrad / Ranunculaceous type	Grass embryo special
Embryonal axis	Present with 2 lateral cotyledons	Terminal cells form embryo
Epicotyl	Above cotyledon attachment	Present
Hypocotyl	Below cotyledon attachment	Below scutellum attachment
Plumule	Embryonic shoot at end of epicotyl	Protected by coleoptile in grasses
Radicle	Embryonic root at end of hypocotyl	Protected by coleorhiza in grasses
Grass cotyledon	—	Scutellum

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Nutrition of embryo

Table 1: Nutritive Tissues

Tissue	Meaning / Example
Endosperm	Main nutritive tissue
Perisperm	Remnant / persistent nucellus around embryo
Chalazosperm	Nucellar cells in chalazal region storing fats and starch; substitute for endosperm; found in Cyanastrum

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Polyembryony

📝

Definition

Development of more than one embryo in same seed

📝

Discovered By

Leeuwenhoek in citrus

📝

Occurrence

Very common in gymnosperms

Table 1: Types of Polyembryony

Type	Cause	Example
Simple polyembryony	More than one embryo sac	Brassica
Mixed polyembryony	More than one pollen tube enters embryo sac; extra male gametes fuse with synergids/antipodals	Allium
Cleavage polyembryony	Embryo cleaves into two or more embryos	Orchids
Adventive polyembryony	Diploid nucellar / integument cells develop into embryos	Citrus

📚

SEED

📖

Definition

Mature / ripened ovule

📖

Parts

•
Seed coat
•
Embryo
•
Endosperm

📖

Seed coat

Table 1: Seed Coat Derivatives

Structure	Origin
Seed coat	Integuments of ovule
Testa	Outer integument
Tegmen	Inner integument
Aril	Third integument-like covering / funicle-derived in some seeds e.g. litchi
Caruncle	Spongy outgrowth near micropyle from outer integument; absorbs water

📖

Seed size

Table 1: Seed Extremes

Point	Example
Smallest / minutest seeds	Orchids
Lightest seeds	Orchid dust seeds
Largest seed	Double coconut / Lodoicea maldivica
Largest seed nature	Bilobed

📖

Exalbuminous vs albuminous seeds

Table 1: Seed Types

Feature	Exalbuminous / Non-endospermic	Albuminous / Endospermic
Food stored in	Cotyledons	Endosperm
Common in	Dicots	Monocots
Endosperm at maturity	Absent / used up	Present
Examples	Bean, gram, pea	Wheat, rice, maize

📖

Monocot seed special

•
Embryo small
•
Single cotyledon = scutellum
•
Embryonal axis covered by coleoptile
•
Radicle protected by coleorhiza

📖

First emergence

Radicle is first part to emerge from seed

📖

Germination

Table 1: Epigeal vs Hypogeal Germination

Type	Feature	Example
Epigeal	Cotyledons pushed above soil	Bean
Hypogeal	Cotyledons remain inside soil	Pea

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AMPHIMIXIS & APOMIXIS

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Amphimixis

Normal sexual reproduction with meiosis + fertilization

📖

Apomixis

📝

Definition

Abnormal reproduction without meiosis and syngamy / fertilization

📝

Term Given By

Winkler

📝

Types

Table 1: Types of Apomixis

Type	Meaning	Examples
Vegetative reproduction	Plant develops from part other than seed	Bulbils, suckers, runners, stolons
Agamospermy	Seed formed but embryo develops without meiosis + fertilization	Seminiferous apomixis
Adventive embryony	Embryo from sporophytic tissues like nucellus/integument	Citrus, mango
Diplospory / generative apospory	MMC develops into diploid embryo sac without reduction division	Diploid embryo sac
Apospory / somatic apospory	Embryo sac develops directly from nucellus cell without meiosis	Ranunculus, Rubus, Parthenium

📖

Related terms

Table 1: Related Reproductive Terms

Term	Meaning	Point / Example
Apogamy	Embryo from synergids/antipodals without fertilization	Cells other than egg inside embryo sac
Parthenogenesis	Embryo from unfertilized egg	Helps form azygospore
Parthenocarpy	Fruit development without pollination and fertilization	Term by Noll; fruits seedless

📝

Parthenocarpic Fruits

•
Banana
•
Papaya
•
Guava
•
Pineapple
•
Apple
•
Grapes
•
Cucurbita

📝

Artificial Parthenocarpy

Induced by powdered pollens and pollen extracts

📚

FRUIT

📖

Definition

Mature / ripened ovary

📖

Main types

Table 1: Main Fruit Types

Type	Origin	Example / Note
Simple fruit	Monocarpellary or syncarpous ovary of single flower	Dry or fleshy
Aggregate fruit / Etaerio	Apocarpous pistil of single flower	Collection of simple fruits
Multiple / Composite fruit	Inflorescence	Sorosis, syconus

📖

Dry fruits

📝

Dehiscent / Capsular

Table 1: Dehiscent Fruits

Fruit	Feature	Examples
Siliqua	Elongated, linear, many-seeded; superior bicarpellary unilocular ovary; parietal placentation; dehisces from base to apex	Cruciferae
Silicula	Short, flat siliqua	Iberis, Capsella
Capsule	From multicarpellary syncarpous ovary	Cotton, lady's finger, poppy, Datura
Legume / Pod	From superior monocarpellary gynoecium; dehisces by both sutures	Pea, gram, bean
Follicle	From superior gynoecium; dehisces by one suture	Calotropis

📄

Capsule Dehiscence

Table 1: Capsule Dehiscence Types

Type	Example
Poricidal	Opium poppy / Papaver somniferum, Argemone
Loculicidal	Cotton, lady's finger
Septicidal	Linum
Septifragal	Datura

📝

Indehiscent / Achenial

Table 1: Indehiscent Dry Fruits

Fruit	Feature	Examples
Cypsela	From inferior bicarpellary ovary	Compositae
Caryopsis	From monocarpellary superior ovary; pericarp + testa fused	Graminae / Poaceae
Achene	Monocarpellary superior unilocular ovary; pericarp free from seed coat except one point	Mirabilis
Nut	One-seeded; superior syncarpous pistil; hard woody/leathery pericarp	Litchi, oak, cashew nut, water chestnut
Samara	One/two-seeded winged fruit; wings from pericarp	Winged fruits

📝

Schizocarpic

•
Lomentum → groundnut
•
Cremocarp
•
Regma → castor
•
Carcerulus
•
Double samara

📖

Fleshy fruits

Table 1: Fleshy / Succulent Fruits

Fruit	Example
Berry / Bacca	Tomato
Drupe	Mango
Pepo	Cucumber
Pome	Apple
Hesperidium	Orange, lemon
Amphisarca	Bael
Balausta	Pomegranate

📖

Aggregate fruits

Table 1: Etaerio Fruits

Type	Example / Note
Etaerio of drupes	Aggregate of small drupes
Etaerio of achenes	Aggregate of achenes
Etaerio of follicles	Aggregate of follicles

📖

Multiple fruits

Table 1: Composite Fruits

Type	Inflorescence	Examples
Sorosis	Catkin / spike-like inflorescence	Jackfruit, mulberry, pineapple
Syconus	Hypanthodium inflorescence	Ficus

📖

Family-wise fruit

Table 1: Fruit Types of Important Families

Family	Fruit
Brassicaceae / Cruciferae	Siliqua / Silicula
Solanaceae	Capsule / Berry
Leguminosae	Legume / Pod
Asteraceae	Cypsela
Graminae / Poaceae	Caryopsis

📚

HIGH-YIELD RECALL1

Table 1: Angiosperm Reproduction One-Liners

Fact	Answer
Stamen equivalent	Microsporophyll
Carpel equivalent	Megasporophyll
Anther equivalent	Microsporangium
Ovule equivalent	Megasporangium
Embryo sac	Female gametophyte
Dithecous anther	Tetrasporangiate
Monosporangiate anther	Arceuthobium
Anther dehiscence region	Stomium
Anther dehiscence layer	Endothecium
Nutritive layer of anther	Tapetum
Callase enzyme	Dissolves callose
Hardest plant substance	Sporopollenin
Study of pollen	Palynology
Pollen tube discovered by	Amici
Term pollen given by	Nemec
Pollen tube formed from	Intine
Pollen tube growth helped by	Boron
Hay fever pollen	Ambrosia
Poisonous pollen	Serjania
Largest pollen	Cucurbits
Smallest pollen	Myosotis
Stigma present only in	Angiosperms
Most active part of ovule	Chalaza
Most common ovule	Anatropous
Primitive ovule	Orthotropous
Cycas ovule	Orthotropous + unitegmic
Pinus ovule	Anatropous + unitegmic
Embryo sac type	Polygonum type
Polygonum embryo sac	Monosporic, 7-celled, 8-nucleated
Polygonum type discovered by	Strasburger
Only diploid nucleus in embryo sac	Secondary nucleus
Pollen tube guidance	Synergids / filiform apparatus
Self pollination	Autogamy
Cross pollination	Allogamy
Wind pollination	Anemophily
Water pollination	Hydrophily
Insect pollination	Entomophily
Bird pollination	Ornithophily
Bat pollination	Chiropterophily
Lever mechanism	Salvia
Translator mechanism	Calotropis
Gall wasp pollination	Ficus
Yucca pollinator	Pronuba moth
Most common pollen tube entry	Porogamy
Chalazogamy example	Casuarina
Mesogamy example	Cucurbita
Double fertilization discovered by	Nawaschin
Double fertilization discovered in	Fritillaria, Lilium
Double fertilization unique to	Angiosperms
Endosperm in angiosperm	Triploid + post-fertilization
Endosperm in gymnosperm	Haploid + pre-fertilization
Most common endosperm	Nuclear type
Cytokinin from maize	Zeatin
No endosperm families	Orchidaceae, Podostemaceae, Trapaceae
Polyembryony discovered by	Leeuwenhoek
Polyembryony common in	Gymnosperms
Seed	Mature ovule
Fruit	Mature ovary
Testa	Outer integument
Tegmen	Inner integument
Smallest seeds	Orchids
Largest seed	Double coconut
Apomixis term	Winkler
Parthenocarpy term	Noll
First part during germination	Radicle
Siliqua family	Cruciferae / Brassicaceae
Legume fruit	Leguminosae
Cypsela fruit	Asteraceae
Caryopsis fruit	Poaceae / Graminae

📚

HIGH-YIELD RECALL

Table 1: Gymnosperm, Cycas & Pinus One-Liners

Fact	Answer
Naked-seeded plants	Gymnosperms
Reason for naked seed	Ovary absent
Living fossils	Cycas, Ginkgo, Metasequoia
Smallest gymnosperm	Zamia pygmaea
Xylem vessel	Absent except Gnetales
Gnetales examples	Gnetum, Ephedra, Welwitschia
Companion cells	Absent
Albuminous cells	Present
Sieve tubes	Absent
Sieve cells	Present
Pollination	Anemophilous
Ovule generally	Orthotropous
Pinus ovule	Anatropous
Gymnosperm endosperm	Haploid
Cycas stem	Caudex
Cycas root	Coralloid root
Coralloid root symbionts	Nostoc + Anabaena
Cycas fertilization	Zooidogamous
Female cone absent	Cycas
3-needled pine of Nepal	Pinus roxburghii
5-needled pine of Nepal	Pinus wallichiana
Pinus stem growth	Monopodial
Pinus branch types	Long shoot + dwarf shoot
Needles found on	Dwarf shoots
Pinus wood	Monoxylic + pycnoxylic
Pinus tracheids	Bordered pits
Pinus plant	Monoecious + autoecious
Female cone of Pinus	Modified inflorescence
Pinus ovules per ovuliferous scale	2
Pinus ovule	Unitegmic + anatropous
Pinus archegonia	2–5
Pinus neck cells	8
Pinus NCC	0
Winged pollen grain	Pinus
Winged seed	Moringa
Winged fruit	Hiptage, Shorea
Shower of sulphur	Yellow pollen release in Pinus
Pinus fertilization	Siphonogamous
Pinus fertilization time	11–15 months after pollination
Pinus seed maturity	After 3 years
Pinus germination	Epigeal
Cycas germination	Hypogeal
Pinus cotyledons	2–18

Q1.

Tapetum is found in

📅CEE MBBS 2025

Q2.

Embryo sac in angiosperms develops from

📅CEE MBBS 2025

Q3.

When tetraploid male plant is crossed with tetraploid female plant, endosperm will be

📅CEE MBBS 2025

Q4.

When two polar nuclei each carry a and a sperm carries A, the resulting endosperm genotype is:

📅CEE MBBS 2024B

Q5.

The innermost wall layer of the anther surrounding developing microspores is:

📅CEE MBBS 2024B

Q6.

A spatial barrier between anther and stigma that reduces self-pollination is:

📅CEE MBBS 2024B

Q7.

In maize, stamens shed pollen before the stigmas are receptive. This is:

📅CEE MBBS 2024a

Q8.

Crossing a diploid female with a tetraploid male typically produces endosperm of ploidy:

📅CEE MBBS 2024a

Q9.

Seeds of which family usually lack endosperm at maturity?

📅CEE BDS 2024

Q10.

In an orthotropous ovule, the micropyle lies near the:

📅CEE BDS 2024

Q11.

Most common angiosperm ovule orientation is:

📅CEE Nursing 2024

Q12.

Endosperm is absent at maturity in seeds of:

📅CEE Nursing 2024

Q13.

Pollen transfer between different flowers of the same plant is:

📅CEE Nursing 2024

Q14.

Angiosperm endosperm is usually:

📅CEE MBBS 2023

Q15.

A bisexual flower which remains closed and self-pollinates is:

📅CEE MBBS 2023

Q16.

Obligatory self-pollination in a closed bisexual flower is:

📅CEE BDS 2023

Q17.

The most common ovule orientation in angiosperms is:

📅CEE MBBS 2021

Q18.

Double fertilization is characteristic of:

📅CEE MBBS 2021

Q19.

The embryo sac is the:

📅CEE MBBS 2021

Q20.

Which condition does NOT by itself promote cross-pollination?

📅CEE MBBS 2021

Q21.

An ovule with a straight axis, micropyle and chalaza aligned is:

📅CEE BDS 2021

Q22.

Endosperm of typical angiosperms is:

📅CEE BDS 2021

Q23.

If a diploid female is crossed with a tetraploid male, the endosperm is usually:

📅CEE BDS 2021

Q24.

Embryo sac is found in: [IE 2008]

📅IE 2008

Q25.

Zeatin is obtained by: [IOM 1997]

📅IOM 1997

Q26.

Explosive (mechanical) seed dispersal is commonly seen in:

📅IOM 1999

Q27.

In a seed, food is generally stored in: [BPKIHS 2005]

📅BPKIHS 2005

Q28.

If pollen of a flower, reaches on a genetically different plant, then it is: [IOM 2005]

📅IOM 2005

Q29.

A typical example of cross pollination is: [IOM 2001, 2009; BPKIHS 1997]

📅IOM 2001, 2009; BPKIHS 1997

Q30.

Which is NOT a recognized adaptation promoting cross-pollination?

📅IOM 1998

Q31.

Xenogamy is called: [IOM 1998]

📅IOM 1998

Q32.

The medium of pollination in Vallisneria is: [IOM 1997]

📅IOM 1997

Q33.

The advantage of cross-fertilization when compared with self fertilization

Q34.

Which submerged aquatic plant exhibits hypohydrophily?

📅BPKIHS 2006

Q35.

If pollen is transferred from anther of a flower to stigma of another flower of the same plant, it is called: [BPKIHS 2006]

📅BPKIHS 2006

Q36.

The monocot plumule is covered by: [IOM 2007]

📅IOM 2007

Q37.

The ovule-bearing leaf-like structure (megasporophyll) of a seed plant is homologous to which angiosperm floral organ?

📅IOM 2007

Q38.

Ovules symmetrical and straight with chalaza at the base and micropyle at the tip are called: [IOM 2006, BPKIHS 1996, MOE 2054]

📅IOM 2006, BPKIHS 1996, MOE 2054

Q39.

Primary endosperm nucleus is usually: [IOM 2004]

📅IOM 2004

Q40.

Carpels of angiosperms are equivalent to: [IOM 2004]

📅IOM 2004

Q41.

Endosperm of maize is:[IOM 2002]

📅IOM 2002

Q42.

Double fertilization is seen in: [IOM 2001]

📅IOM 2001

Q43.

Embryo sac of the angiosperm before the fertilization is: [IOM 1997]

📅IOM 1997

Q44.

How many cells have undergone division to form 32 pollen grains? [IOM 1997]

📅IOM 1997

Q45.

Nuclei found at the centre of embryo sac is: [MOE]

📅MOE

Q46.

The point of junction of the integument and the nucellus is called the [IOM 1996]

📅IOM 1996

Q47.

Why can the number of seeds formed not be determined from the statement "35 meiotic divisions occurred" alone?

📅IOM 1996

Q48.

Development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg is termed:

📅IOM 1999

Q49.

In angiosperm, embryo sac denotes: [BPKIHS 2000]

📅BPKIHS 2000

Q50.

If a diploid female plant is crossed with a tetraploid male plant, the usual endosperm ploidy is:

📅BPKIHS 2001

Q51.

In 82% of angiosperm families, ovule is

Q52.

No. of chromosomes in the root of an angiospermic plant is 16. Then no. of chromosomes in its endosperm is: [BPKIHS 2002]

📅BPKIHS 2002

Q53.

Mode of reproduction resulting in the development of an embryo without the act of fertilization/meiosis [BPKIHS 2004]

📅BPKIHS 2004

Q54.

The entry of pollen tube through the micropyle is [BPKIHS 1996]

📅BPKIHS 1996

Q55.

Stalk of ovule is called

Q56.

Pollen grain is a [BPKIHS 1996]

📅BPKIHS 1996

Q57.

Pollen tube with two male nuclei is:

Q58.

Development of an unfertilized egg into embryo is: [BPKIHS 1996]

📅BPKIHS 1996

Q59.

Poppy seeds are dispersed by [BPKINS 1996]

📅BPKINS 1996

Q60.

Number of germ pores in a pollen is always [BPKIHS 1997]

📅BPKIHS 1997

Q61.

Insects pollinated pollen grains are [BPKIHS 1998]

📅BPKIHS 1998

Q62.

The pollination by wind is called: [MOE 2008, 2064]

📅MOE 2008, 2064

Q63.

The development of fruit without fertilization is: [MOE 2008, 2062, MOE 2011]

📅MOE 2008, 2062, MOE 2011

Q64.

Wind pollinated flowers are:[MOE 2063]

📅MOE 2063

Q65.

Winged seed is present in: [MOE 2063]

📅MOE 2063

Q66.

The process of forming new plants by cutting or grafting of any part of a plant is called: [MOE 2062]

📅MOE 2062

Q67.

In the seed micropyle is for entry of: [MOE 2003]

📅MOE 2003

Q68.

A linear tetrad of megaspores is produced during development of the:

📅MOE 2002

Q69.

Vivipary is a type of: [MOE 2000]

📅MOE 2000

Q70.

Endosperm of angiosperm develops after fertilization from: [MOE 2055]

📅MOE 2055

Q71.

The first animals to serve as pollinators were: [IE 2007]

📅IE 2007

Q72.

The typical mature Polygonum-type embryo sac of an angiosperm is:

📅IE 2001

Q73.

Which term refers to nonrandom mating in which individuals preferentially mate with similar phenotypes?

📅IE 2002

Q74.

The number of gametes formed from AaBbCcDd is [IE 2005]

📅IE 2005

Q75.

Numerous, small, non sticky pollen and presence of feathery and non-sticky stigma is adapted for [BPKIHS - 2016]

📅BPKIHS - 2016

Q76.

Night blooming flowers are [BPKIHS - 2016, 2012]

📅BPKIHS - 2016, 2012

Q77.

Malacophily means pollination by [BPKIHS - 2015]

📅BPKIHS - 2015

Q78.

How many meiotic division is required to produce 100 pollen grains? [BPKIHS 2010]

📅BPKIHS 2010

Q79.

How many sperms are produced from 24 secondary spermatocyte [BPKIHS - 2010]

📅BPKIHS - 2010

Q80.

Formation of fruit from ovary without fertilization [BPKIHS - 2012]

📅BPKIHS - 2012

Q81.

The female gamete of an angiosperm is called the:

📅BPKIHS - 2012

Q82.

In nucellar adventive embryony, the embryo develops directly from:

📅BPKIHS- 2010

Q83.

In cellular endosperm development, new cell walls form by:

📅BPKIHS - 2010

Q84.

The edible fleshy structure surrounding the litchi seed is called:

📅BPKIHS - 2010

Q85.

The point of attachment of ovule with funicle is called: [IOM-2014

📅IOM-2014

Q86.

In angiosperms, the female gametophyte is[IOM-2014]

📅IOM-2014

Q87.

Flowers which remain closed upto seed set is [IOM-2015]

📅IOM-2015

Q88.

Nutrition to the developing microspore is provided by [IOM-2016

📅IOM-2016

Q89.

Ornithophily is pollinated by [IOM-2016]

📅IOM-2016

Q90.

Apomixis is development of a new plant [IOM-2013]

📅IOM-2013

Q91.

Grafting is not possible in monocotyledons because they [IOM-2013

📅IOM-2013

Q92.

The formation of fruit in absence of fertilization is [IOM-2013]

📅IOM-2013

Q93.

An embryo sac of a flowering plant has [IOM-2013]

📅IOM-2013

Q94.

When pollination occurs between neighbouring flowers of the same plant, it is called [IOM-2013]

📅IOM-2013

Q95.

The edible part of apple and pear is [IOM-2013]

📅IOM-2013

Q96.

Milky water of green coconut is [IOM-2013]

📅IOM-2013

Q97.

Typical 8 nucleated embryo sac is of which type? [IOM-2012]

📅IOM-2012

Q98.

Which of the following is male gametophyte in higher plant? [IOM-2012]

📅IOM-2012

Q99.

A fruit developed without fertilization: [IOM-2012]

📅IOM-2012

Q100.

Entry of pollen tube through micropyle is [IOM-2015]

📅IOM-2015

Q101.

Double fertilization is a characteristic of [IOM-2015]

📅IOM-2015

Q102.

The development of zygote from egg cell without the act of fertilization as seen in many lower plants is called: [IOM-2015]

📅IOM-2015

Q103.

Which mechanism prevents self-pollination by spatial separation of anthers and stigma?

📅IOM-2015

Q104.

Endosperm in angiosperm is [MOE 2014]

📅MOE 2014

Q105.

Which is the innermost layer of the typical anther wall?

📅MOE 2014

Q106.

Which of the following develops into seed? [MOE 2014]

📅MOE 2014

Q107.

The common Polygonum-type angiosperm embryo sac normally develops from:

📅MOE 2014

Q108.

Erect or straight form of ovule is referred as [MOE 2014]

📅MOE 2014

Q109.

The embryo sac develops from [MOE 2013]

📅MOE 2013

Q110.

Endospermic cells of an angiospermic plant are [MOE 2013]

📅MOE 2013

Q111.

When does meiosis occur in a flowering plant? [MOE 2013]

📅MOE 2013

Q112.

Which one is not a part of mature ovule? [MOE 2012]

📅MOE 2012

Q113.

Bisexual flower which never opens in its life span is [MOE 2012]

📅MOE 2012

Q114.

After fertilization, the seed coat develops from [MOE 2012]

📅MOE 2012

Q115.

Parthenogenesis is the development of:

📅MOE 2068

Q116.

Which is not a part of dicotyledonous embryo? [MOE 2068]

📅MOE 2068

Q117.

Ornithology is the study of [MOE 2068]

📅MOE 2068

Q118.

Formation of fruit without fertilization is called [MOE 2068]

📅MOE 2068

Q119.

A typical embryo sac of angiosperm has [MOE 2068]

📅MOE 2068

Q120.

In flowering plants, meiosis occur at the time of [MOE 2068]

📅MOE 2068

Q121.

Double fertilization is characteristics of [MOE 2068]

📅MOE 2068

Q122.

Which of the following plant shows polyembryony? [MOE 2010]

📅MOE 2010

Q123.

When the pollen from one flower is deposited on the stigma of another flower borne on different plant, the type of pollination is known as: [MOE 2010]

📅MOE 2010

Q124.

Megaspores develop from the cells of [MOE 2010]

📅MOE 2010

Q125.

Double fertilization was first reported by [MOE 2010]

📅MOE 2010

Q126.

Pollen tube develops from [MOE 2010]

📅MOE 2010

Q127.

Which one is a mode of vegetative reproduction? [MOE 2068]

📅MOE 2068

Table 1: Gymnosperm vs Angiosperm Homology

Table 1: Parts of Stamen

Table 1: Anther Structure

Table 1: Anther Wall Layers

Table 1: Types of Tapetum

Table 1: Tapetal Products

Table 1: Pollen Study Terms

Table 1: Pollen Grain

Table 1: Pollen Wall

Table 1: Cells of Pollen Grain

Table 1: Pollen Stage at Pollination

Table 1: Pollen Tube

Table 1: Special Pollen Points

Table 1: Carpel

Table 1: Parts of Ovule

Table 1: Types of Ovule by Orientation

Table 1: Types of Ovule by Integument Number

Table 1: Ovule-associated Structures

Table 1: Types of Placentation

Table 1: Mature Angiospermic Embryo Sac

Table 1: Polygonum Type Embryo Sac

Table 1: Types of Embryo Sac

Table 1: Self vs Cross Pollination

Table 1: Types of Allogamy

Table 1: Outbreeding Devices

Table 1: Pollination Agents

Table 1: Special Pollination Mechanisms

Table 1: Types of Pollen Tube Entry

Table 1: Double Fertilization

Table 1: Endosperm Difference

Table 1: Types of Endosperm

Table 1: Endospermic vs Non-endospermic Seeds

Table 1: Xenia vs Metaxenia

Table 1: Embryo Development

Table 1: Nutritive Tissues

Table 1: Types of Polyembryony

Table 1: Seed Coat Derivatives

Table 1: Seed Extremes

Table 1: Seed Types

Table 1: Epigeal vs Hypogeal Germination

Table 1: Types of Apomixis

Table 1: Related Reproductive Terms

Table 1: Main Fruit Types

Table 1: Dehiscent Fruits

Table 1: Capsule Dehiscence Types

Table 1: Indehiscent Dry Fruits

Table 1: Fleshy / Succulent Fruits

Table 1: Etaerio Fruits

Table 1: Composite Fruits

Table 1: Fruit Types of Important Families

Table 1: Angiosperm Reproduction One-Liners

Table 1: Gymnosperm, Cycas & Pinus One-Liners

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